Mind Over Matter

One of the most influential theories in second language acquisition is the information processing theory, which views language learning as a complex cognitive process involving various types of memory, attention, and automatization. This theory was developed as a response to the limitations of the behaviourist theory, which could not account for the creative and generative aspects of language use or the role of input and feedback in language development. In this blog post, I will explain information processing theory’s main concepts and assumptions and how they can help us understand and facilitate second language learning.

Key Concepts of Information Processing Theory

The information processing theory is based on the idea that language learning is similar to other types of skill learning, such as driving or playing an instrument. According to this theory, learners must process linguistic information in three stages: input, intake, and output. Input refers to the language data learners are exposed to, such as speech or text. Intake refers to the subset of input that learners pay attention to and store in their short-term memory. Output refers to learners’ language data, such as speech or writing. The information processing theory claims that learners need to receive rich and meaningful input, pay selective attention to the relevant features of the input, and produce output that reflects their current level of competence.

One of the key concepts of information processing theory is working memory, which is the part of short-term memory that temporarily holds and manipulates information for cognitive tasks. Working memory has a limited capacity and duration, meaning learners can only process a certain amount of information at a time and for a short time. Working memory is crucial for language learning, as it allows learners to store and retrieve linguistic information, such as vocabulary or grammar rules. The information processing theory proposes that learners must enhance their working memory capacity and efficiency through strategies such as chunking, rehearsal, and elaboration.

Another important concept in information processing theory is attention. Attention refers to the mental focus that learners allocate to different aspects of input or output. Attention is a limited resource that can be influenced by various factors, such as learners’ goals, interests, emotions, and prior knowledge. Attention is crucial for SLA, as it determines what information learners select and process from the input or output. According to Schmidt’s noticing hypothesis, learners need to pay conscious attention to the form and meaning of the target language to acquire it. Noticing is the first step in converting input into intake, which is the information that learners store in their short-term or long-term memory.

A third key concept in information processing theory is knowledge. Knowledge refers to the mental representation of linguistic rules and facts that learners acquire from input and output. Knowledge can be classified into two types: declarative and procedural. Declarative knowledge is the explicit knowledge of facts and rules about the target language, such as vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation. Declarative knowledge can be easily verbalized and tested by discrete items. Procedural knowledge is the implicit knowledge of how to use the target language in communicative situations, such as speaking, listening, reading, or writing. Procedural knowledge can be acquired through practice and feedback, and performance tasks can test it. The difference between declarative and procedural knowledge is that declarative knowledge is about knowing what, while procedural knowledge is about knowing how. For example, declarative knowledge would be knowing that a verb agrees with its subject in number and person, while procedural knowledge would be knowing how to apply this rule when forming sentences. Declarative knowledge can be learned by studying rules or memorizing facts, while procedural knowledge can be learned by doing tasks or solving problems.

A fourth key concept of information processing theory is automatization, which is making a skill or a subskill effortless and unconscious through repeated practice. Automatization frees up cognitive resources for learners to focus on more complex and challenging aspects of language use. For example, when learners automatize a language’s pronunciation or grammar rules, they can devote more attention to the meaning and pragmatics of their communication. The information processing theory suggests that learners must practice language skills in varied and authentic contexts and receive feedback on their performance.

Information processing theory also recognizes that learners have individual differences in their cognitive abilities and learning styles. Some learners may have more or less working memory capacity, which affects how much information they can process at a time. Some learners may prefer more or less explicit instruction, which affects how they learn the rules and patterns of the target language. Some learners may have more or less motivation, anxiety, or self-confidence, affecting their engagement with the input and output.

Information processing theory can provide valuable insights for teachers and learners of second languages. It can help teachers design effective instructional materials and activities that match learners’ cognitive needs and preferences. It can also help learners monitor their learning process and strategies and seek opportunities for improvement.

Implications for Second Language Teaching

One of the main implications of information processing theory for second language learning is that learners need to pay attention to the input and notice the features of the target language. They also need to store the input in their short-term and long-term memory and retrieve it when needed. They need to practice the output and get feedback on their performance. They need to monitor their learning and use strategies to enhance it.

How can teachers integrate information processing theory into their classroom teaching practice? Here are some suggestions with details and examples:

• Provide learners with rich and meaningful input relevant to their needs and interests. Use authentic materials that expose learners to different genres, registers, and contexts of the target language. For example, you can use newspapers, magazines, podcasts, videos, or websites that cover topics that learners are interested in or need to know for their academic or professional purposes. You can also use materials that reflect the culture and society of the target language speakers and help learners develop intercultural competence.
• Help learners focus on the form and meaning of the input. Use techniques like highlighting, underlining, glossing, or explaining to draw learners’ attention to specific linguistic features. For example, you can highlight or underline the grammatical structures, vocabulary items, or pronunciation patterns you want learners to notice and learn. You can also provide glosses or explanations for unfamiliar words or expressions in the margin or a separate handout. Ask questions or give tasks that require learners to process the input deeply and critically. For example, you can ask learners to answer comprehension questions, make inferences, compare and contrast, or evaluate the input.
• Encourage learners to produce output that reflects their understanding of the input. Use activities such as summarizing, paraphrasing, or reporting to elicit output from learners. For example, you can ask learners to summarize the main points of a text or a speech in their own words. You can also ask them to paraphrase a sentence or a paragraph using different words or structures. You can also ask them to report what they have learned or discussed to another group or class. Provide opportunities for learners to interact with each other and native speakers in meaningful and purposeful situations. For example, you can use role-plays, simulations, debates, or projects that require learners to use the target language for authentic communication and problem-solving.
• Give learners feedback on their output. Use corrective feedback techniques such as recasting, clarification requests, or metalinguistic feedback to help learners notice and correct their errors. For example, you can repeat what learners have said with corrections (recasting), ask them to repeat or explain what they have said (clarification requests) or give them hints or explanations about their errors (metalinguistic feedback). Use positive feedback techniques such as praise, encouragement, or reinforcement to motivate learners and boost their confidence. For example, you can compliment learners on their efforts, achievements, or improvements.
• Teach learners to monitor their learning and use strategies to improve it. Use self-assessment, reflection, or goal-setting activities to help learners evaluate their progress and identify their strengths and weaknesses. For example, you can ask learners to rate their performance on a scale of 1 to 5 after each activity or lesson. You can also ask them to write a journal entry about what they have learned or what difficulties they have encountered. You can also ask them to set specific and realistic goals for their future learning. Teach learners how to use strategies such as planning, rehearsing, reviewing, or testing to enhance their learning. For example, you can teach learners how to plan their time and tasks before they start learning. You can also teach them how to rehearse what they have learned by repeating it aloud or writing it down. You can also teach them to review what they have learned using flashcards, summaries, or quizzes. You can also teach them how to test themselves using self-tests or peer-tests.

Information processing theory can be helpful for teachers to design and implement effective second language instruction. By applying the principles of information processing theory, teachers can help learners acquire the target language more efficiently and enjoyably.